第一章　跨文化交際課程的必要性The Necessity of Cross-cultural Communication Course

第一節(jié)　跨文化交際定義

“跨文化交際”的英語(yǔ)名稱是“cross-cultural communication（或inter-cultural communication）”。它是指本族語(yǔ)者與非本族語(yǔ)者之間的交際，也指任何在語(yǔ)言和文化背景方面有差異的人們之間的交際。通俗來(lái)說(shuō)就是如果你和外國(guó)人打交道，由于存在語(yǔ)言和文化背景的差異，應(yīng)該注意什么問(wèn)題，應(yīng)該如何得體地去交流。

由于交際雙方存在語(yǔ)言和文化背景的差異：文化背景不同、社會(huì)環(huán)境與背景各異、思維方式和交際方式有別，因此會(huì)對(duì)同一詞、同一句話、非語(yǔ)言行為和事物產(chǎn)生不同的理解、不同的聯(lián)想和不同的所指意義。

美國(guó)學(xué)者Larry等人把跨文化交際定義為“文化知覺(jué)和符號(hào)系統(tǒng)的不同足以改變交際事件中的人們之間的交際（Larry，l996）”，而我國(guó)學(xué)者賈玉新、關(guān)世杰等人則將其分別表述為：“跨文化交際是指不同文化背景的人們（信息發(fā)出者和信息接受者）之間的交際。從心理學(xué)的角度講，信息的編、譯碼是由來(lái)自不同文化背景的人所進(jìn)行的”（賈玉新，1997）和“一種文化背景的人、群體與另一種文化背景的人、群體進(jìn)行的交流”（關(guān)世杰，1996）?？缥幕浑H作為一種行為是不同語(yǔ)言、不同文化、不同社會(huì)心理和不同社會(huì)環(huán)境之間人與人的交際。跨文化交際一般是通過(guò)兩種行為完成的：一個(gè)是語(yǔ)言行為，另一個(gè)是非語(yǔ)言行為。語(yǔ)言行為是文化交際最重要的方式，它是指跨文化交際的參與者通過(guò)語(yǔ)言信息實(shí)現(xiàn)交際的目的，而非語(yǔ)言交際行為主要是通過(guò)行動(dòng)、空間、時(shí)間或沉默來(lái)傳遞文化交流的信息。每個(gè)民族都生活在特定的自然地理環(huán)境之中，具有各自的歷史背景和文化傳統(tǒng)，因而也形成了各自的思維方式。民族的思維方式，既有民族性，也有時(shí)代性、區(qū)域性和社會(huì)性。長(zhǎng)久生活在不同區(qū)域的人，具有不同的文化特征，因而也形成不同的思維方式。東方和西方屬于兩大不同的文化體系，因而形成兩大類型的思維方式。如果交際的雙方不了解或是違背了這些文化規(guī)約，常常會(huì)導(dǎo)致懊悔不已，大發(fā)雷霆，甚至大動(dòng)干戈。

隨著我國(guó)與世界各國(guó)在經(jīng)濟(jì)和科技領(lǐng)域合作的增多，跨文化交際日趨頻繁，由文化差異導(dǎo)致的誤解在人們的生活和工作中經(jīng)常發(fā)生，因此學(xué)習(xí)跨文化交際課程非常重要。

2012年2月19日在美聯(lián)航飛機(jī)上發(fā)生了一件事：一對(duì)中國(guó)游客夫婦被美國(guó)空姐趕下飛機(jī)。事由是行李放置違規(guī)，且不聽從空姐指揮，爭(zhēng)吵過(guò)程中這對(duì)夫婦叫空姐“shut up”，冒犯了空乘人員被機(jī)組人員趕下飛機(jī)。這件事中國(guó)人看來(lái)覺(jué)得很奇怪，“shut up”不就是“閉嘴”嗎？況且中國(guó)人認(rèn)為乘客是上帝，就因?yàn)檫@句話將乘客趕下飛機(jī)是不是有點(diǎn)小題大做？很多中國(guó)人從小就開始學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)，但由于中西文化差異，中國(guó)人有時(shí)使用英語(yǔ)時(shí)并非發(fā)音不準(zhǔn)，而是用錯(cuò)場(chǎng)合、用錯(cuò)語(yǔ)境、用錯(cuò)語(yǔ)調(diào)等，讓西方人莫名其妙，產(chǎn)生誤會(huì)。在飛機(jī)上，中國(guó)人對(duì)空姐說(shuō)“shut up”，可能覺(jué)得就是“閉嘴或是別說(shuō)了”的意思，但對(duì)西方人來(lái)說(shuō)如同罵人。中國(guó)人學(xué)英語(yǔ)，對(duì)有些詞句經(jīng)常只知道意思，但對(duì)在什么場(chǎng)合使用或者是否禮貌并不清楚。美國(guó)空姐趕中國(guó)乘客下飛機(jī)只是中美文化沖突的一個(gè)小例子。所以學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)言的同時(shí)，還要認(rèn)真學(xué)習(xí)不同國(guó)家、不同民族的文化，這樣到了國(guó)外才會(huì)避免許多想象不到的誤會(huì)和矛盾。

第二節(jié)　跨文化交際的特征

文化是人類在特定的環(huán)境里，經(jīng)過(guò)長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的歷史累積，在群體中形成的，所以文化是一種社會(huì)現(xiàn)象，而非個(gè)人現(xiàn)象。假如一個(gè)中國(guó)人與一個(gè)美國(guó)人對(duì)中美文化懷有各自的認(rèn)同感，而又缺少跨文化交際知識(shí)，那么兩人在交際中難免會(huì)不時(shí)出現(xiàn)矛盾。例如，在中國(guó)的酒席上，主賓之間、賓客之間不斷勸酒是表示一種敬意，有時(shí)幾乎是強(qiáng)迫他人滿杯一干而盡，受勸者若是不從，好像是不給勸酒者臉面?？稍谟⒚谰葡希魅私^對(duì)不勉強(qiáng)客人喝酒，完全是“主從客便”。

沒(méi)有人生來(lái)就對(duì)本民族文化具有認(rèn)同感。一個(gè)人一出生便置身于一定的社會(huì)文化圈里，耳濡目染，潛移默化，不知不覺(jué)地具備了一定的文化素養(yǎng)，其言談舉止自然而然地打上了本民族文化的烙印。到了一定的年齡，大多數(shù)人對(duì)本民族文化的交際行為已習(xí)慣成自然。這習(xí)慣增加了跨文化交際的難度。例如，在日常生活中，我們經(jīng)常會(huì)受到別人的贊揚(yáng)，只要說(shuō)聲“謝謝”就可以了，但中國(guó)人遇到這種情況往往顯得局促不安，不知如何回答，或是自謙一番。外來(lái)民族的交際習(xí)慣對(duì)我們來(lái)說(shuō)，宛如身體某部位的異物有一種本能的排他性，如果置身于一個(gè)嶄新的文化氛圍中，“入鄉(xiāng)隨俗”也不是一件容易的事。

在跨文化交際實(shí)踐中，“文化錯(cuò)誤”（cultural mistakes）要比語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤（linguistic mistakes）嚴(yán)重得多，因?yàn)檎Z(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤多是言不達(dá)意，無(wú)法把心里想說(shuō)的東西清楚地表達(dá)出來(lái)，而文化錯(cuò)誤往往使本族人與異族人之間產(chǎn)生嚴(yán)重誤會(huì)甚至敵意（illfeeling）。

第三節(jié)　培養(yǎng)跨文化交際能力的必要性

高職高專層次教育是國(guó)家教育事業(yè)的一個(gè)重要部分，它肩負(fù)著為國(guó)家培養(yǎng)一線技能型人才的重任。因此，除了學(xué)習(xí)專業(yè)技能，還應(yīng)該順應(yīng)時(shí)代，掌握必要的國(guó)際交際能力。由于中西方不同的文化背景，兩種文化的人們?cè)谒枷胗^念和禮貌方面也表現(xiàn)出一定的差異，他們?cè)诮煌胁扇〉亩Y貌策略也不盡相同。顧曰國(guó)根據(jù)《禮記·曲禮》內(nèi)容得出，“中國(guó)式禮貌的一大特點(diǎn)”是“貶己尊人”，中國(guó)人用“禮”來(lái)約束自己的禮貌行為，不管做什么，不做什么，都要考慮自己的社會(huì)身份和地位，以免“失禮”。同時(shí)，中國(guó)人注重“面子”，“面子”與“禮”也有著必然的聯(lián)系，因?yàn)椤懊孀印狈从车氖巧鐣?huì)角色，體現(xiàn)了等級(jí)和權(quán)勢(shì)的高低。再如在對(duì)恭維語(yǔ)的回答方面，中國(guó)人的表現(xiàn)是謙虛、內(nèi)斂，而西方人卻大膽地接受并且致謝。在與外國(guó)友人交際中，我們要避免以自己本土的禮貌、禮節(jié)來(lái)評(píng)判對(duì)方，切莫把自己已經(jīng)習(xí)慣了的禮貌、禮節(jié)生搬硬套到對(duì)方身上，那樣只會(huì)導(dǎo)致交際的失敗。

在美國(guó)，一個(gè)男孩看到喜歡的女孩會(huì)大膽、坦誠(chéng)地盯著對(duì)方看，認(rèn)為這是表達(dá)情感的正當(dāng)方式，而女孩也不會(huì)認(rèn)為男孩子無(wú)禮或是不道德。相反，在中國(guó)，如果一個(gè)男孩子盯著一個(gè)女孩子看，會(huì)被認(rèn)為是非常沒(méi)有禮貌或是居心不良。

中西方在人際交往的方式上有著明顯的差別，如中國(guó)人熱情好客，在人際交往中飽含熱情，噓寒問(wèn)暖，似乎沒(méi)有什么可保留的，對(duì)于了解有關(guān)年齡、職業(yè)、收入、婚姻狀況、子女等問(wèn)題，覺(jué)得都理所當(dāng)然。而在西方國(guó)家中，人們特別重視對(duì)方的隱私權(quán)。個(gè)人隱私主要包括：個(gè)人狀況（年齡、工作、收入、婚姻、子女等）、政治觀念（支持或反對(duì)何種黨派）、宗教信仰（信仰什么宗教）、個(gè)人行為動(dòng)向（去何種地方，與誰(shuí)交往、通信）等。凡是涉及個(gè)人隱私的都不能直接過(guò)問(wèn)。中國(guó)人的空間距離相對(duì)較近，而中國(guó)人又會(huì)覺(jué)得西方人過(guò)于冷淡、傲慢，過(guò)分疏遠(yuǎn)。

中國(guó)人與英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的人表達(dá)問(wèn)候的方式有明顯差異。中國(guó)人見面打招呼時(shí)經(jīng)常說(shuō)：“吃了嗎？上哪兒去？”其實(shí)這在英語(yǔ)文化中并不是問(wèn)候，而是真正的問(wèn)題。英美人問(wèn)候多用“Good morning!”、“Hi”、“Hello”等，與此同時(shí)，人們常用談?wù)撎鞖獾姆绞絹?lái)寒暄。高職學(xué)生在和外國(guó)留學(xué)生或外籍教師的交流中，如不了解這些文化差異將直接影響交際質(zhì)量，構(gòu)成跨文化交際失誤，引起誤會(huì)、不快，甚至是沖突。

目前，大學(xué)生跨文化交際能力的現(xiàn)狀是：聽不懂、說(shuō)不出、語(yǔ)用失誤、文化知識(shí)匱乏、不敢交際、交際失敗。所以學(xué)習(xí)跨文化交際就是要提高大學(xué)生的語(yǔ)言能力、交際能力和綜合文化能力。語(yǔ)言能力是交際能力的根基，沒(méi)有一定的交際能力，語(yǔ)言能力只是一根放置于屋角的拐杖，綜合文化能力是交際能力的重要組成部分。因此，培養(yǎng)高職學(xué)生的跨文化交際能力是很有必要的。

Case 1

Professor Johnson was invited to give a guest lecture at a Chinese university in the early 1990s. All that he could tell the students was very attentive. They applauded warmly when the lecture came to an end. However, Professor Johnson was disappointed when no one asked any questions, even after they were encouraged to do so. In fact, most students avoided eye contact with him as he tried to communicate with them.

分析：以上這個(gè)案例牽涉到幾個(gè)問(wèn)題：第一點(diǎn)，關(guān)于中西方教育方式不同的問(wèn)題。在美國(guó)，傳統(tǒng)的教育方法是 trial and error。也就是說(shuō)你自己通過(guò)反復(fù)的實(shí)驗(yàn)，反復(fù)的犯錯(cuò)誤，于是終于明白了真理是什么。這種情況下往往要求學(xué)生有很大的學(xué)習(xí)自主性，而老師的主要任務(wù)就是解答而不是灌輸，所以美國(guó)人喜歡問(wèn)問(wèn)題，美國(guó)教師也喜歡被問(wèn)。而在我國(guó)，教育方式是watch and learn。也就是老師告訴你是什么，然后你記住就好了。這就是中國(guó)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)被動(dòng)的原因之一。第二點(diǎn)，關(guān)于power distance的問(wèn)題。在美國(guó)強(qiáng)調(diào)的是人人平等，老師和學(xué)生之間亦然，所以課堂上學(xué)生可以很隨意的打斷教師的授課，甚至當(dāng)著同學(xué)的面對(duì)教師所講內(nèi)容表示懷疑。而在我國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)里，教師是有著一定社會(huì)地位的職業(yè)。教師代表著權(quán)威，代表著經(jīng)驗(yàn)。“一日為師，終身為父”這樣的說(shuō)法更體現(xiàn)了中國(guó)人對(duì)教師的敬重，所以學(xué)生是把教師放在比自己高一個(gè)社會(huì)等級(jí)的位置。于是，人們很少質(zhì)疑教師的權(quán)威，這也是中國(guó)學(xué)生不喜歡當(dāng)堂問(wèn)問(wèn)題的原因之一。如果真有問(wèn)題，往往會(huì)私下問(wèn)，這樣給老師也留有一定的余地，最大限度地保證了沒(méi)有沖突發(fā)生。畢竟在集體主義文化里和諧是第一位的。第三點(diǎn)，眼神交流。在美國(guó)個(gè)人主義文化里，和別人說(shuō)話的時(shí)候要正視對(duì)方的眼睛，這是一種自信的表現(xiàn)，因?yàn)樵谒麄兊奈幕?，謙虛不是美德。而正視別人眼睛也是對(duì)他人的尊重。而在東方，避免眼神交流才是尊重，這一點(diǎn)在日本文化里尤為明顯。和自己的長(zhǎng)輩、上級(jí)說(shuō)話的時(shí)候往往是低著頭的。

Case 2

One cold winter day in a Chinese city, on the way to the library, Wang Lin met an American professor who knew very little about China. After greeting him, Wang said: “It’s rather cold. You’d better put on more clothes.” But the professor didn’t appear happy on hearing this.

分析：美國(guó)人以及大部分西方國(guó)家的人們不喜歡被告知要怎么做，他們比較喜歡獨(dú)立，然而中國(guó)人則習(xí)慣關(guān)心別人，這個(gè)案例中王林表達(dá)的建議就是一種對(duì)他人的關(guān)心，可是美國(guó)教授卻不習(xí)慣這樣的表達(dá)。

Case 3

An American went to a Chinese home. He was offered some tea. Just when the first cup was about to finish, more tea was added. The visitor drank the second cup. Then the cup was filled the third time. Then he drank it, then… until the visitor was quite full. Why?

分析：在中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化習(xí)俗里，主人通常會(huì)不斷給客人斟茶倒水，或者不斷地給客人的盤子里加食物以表示他的熱情好客。面對(duì)這樣的情況，中國(guó)客人知道如何處理，在他們覺(jué)得吃飽喝足之后，就會(huì)隨它放在桌上。而美國(guó)客人就不懂了，在美國(guó)，杯子里和盤子里剩下茶水或是食物是不禮貌的，于是，出于對(duì)美國(guó)文化理念的遵循，美國(guó)人可能會(huì)在這樣的招待中喝得過(guò)多、吃得過(guò)多。

練 習(xí) 題

— Exercises —

一、選擇題

1. If you don’t like the talk going on, you may say:_______.

a. “So much for today”

b. “Let’s stop today”

c. “Well, it’s going late. I think we can continue the discussion next time”

2. To show your disagreement, it is informal to say:_______.

a. I can’t go along with your view

b. I’m afraid I can’t agree with you

c. No, I don’t think so

3. In public, when a smoker says to you, “Would you mind if I smoke?” You may answer:_______.

a. “Yes, please” 　b. “No, please” 　c. “It’s up to you”

4. At a friend’s home in England, a Chinese student gives a birthday present to her English friend.

Mary: “Thank you. It’s beautiful.”

Xiao Zhao:_______.

a. “Really? Do you like it?”

b. “Don’t mention it. It’s only a small thing.”

c. “I’m glad you like it.”

5. In English which of the following is true?

a. The Surname comes first, followed by the given name.

b. The given name comes first, followed by the Surname.

c. The Surname comes first, followed by the family name.

6. Suppose you are asked to make a speech, you should address the listeners as_______ .

a. “Ladies and Gentlemen” b. “Mrs. and Mr.” 　c. “Comrades and friends”

7. We may call the person who holds the meeting .

a. Mr. Chairman 　b. Mr. President 　c. Mr. Host

8. In job-seeking, which of the following is true?

a. You should not look the employer in the eye during an interview.

b. Personal appearance is not important for an interview.

c. Do not blame your former employer is a piece of good advice for an employee.

9. Which of the following is true?

a. Three and seven are regarded as unlucky numbers in the West.

b. Three and four are regarded as lucky numbers in the West.

c. Six and seven are regarded as lucky numbers in the West.

10. You’ve been having digestive problems for a week, and have just started to feel better. You meet a British friend at a party. Your friend says, “How are you?” What should you not do?

a. Start talking in detail about your problem.

b. Say, “Fine, thanks. How are you?”

c. Say, “Not bad, thanks. How are you?”

11. You’re visiting an American friend in her new apartment. You like the apartment and you want your friend to know. Which of the following is not proper for you to do?

a. Say nothing, but show your interest by walking around, looking at everything in the apartment.

b. “Gee, this place is really nice.”

c. “I really like your apartment.”

12. You’ve been invited to dinner at a friend’s home. You’re about to sit down to eat, but you want to use the toilet first. What is not proper for you to say?

a. “Excuse me. Where is the toilet?”

b. “Could I wash my hands before dinner?”

c. “Do you mind if I use the bathroom?”

13. You are a guest in a British or American friend’s home. Your friend asks if you would like something to drink. You really would like a drink. What would you say?

a. “Yes, that would be lovely.

b. “No, thank you.” And wait for your friend to ask you again.

c. “That’s OK. I can get it myself.”

14. You’ve just been introduced to a British or American friend’s parents. What would you say?

a. “Hello” and bow.

b. Say nothing and shake hands.

c. “Nice to meet you” and shake hands.

15. Most young people in the US start dating around the age of_______ .

a. 12 　 　 　b. 16 　 　 　c. 18

二、案例分析

Two men meet on a plane from Tokyo to Hong Kong. Chu Hon-fei is a Hong Kong exporter who is returning from a business trip to Japan. Andrew Richardson is an American buyer on his first business trip to Hong Kong. It is a convenient meeting for them because Mr. Chu’s company sells some of the products that Mr. Richardson has come to Hong Kong to buy. After a bit of conversation they introduce themselves to each other.

Mr. Richardson: By the way, I’m Andrew Richardson. My friends call me Andy. This is my business card.

Mr. Chu: I’m David Chu. Pleased to meet you, Mr. Richardson. This is my card.

Mr. Richardson: No, no. Call me Andy. I think we’ll be doing a lot of business together.

Mr. Chu: Yes, I hope so.

Mr. Richardson (reading Mr. Chu’s card ): Chu, Hon-fei. Hon-fei, I’ll give you a call tomorrow as soon as I get settled at my hotel.

Mr Chu (smiling): Yes, I’ll expect your call.

When these two men separate, they leave each other with very different impressions of the situation. Mr. Richardson is very pleased to have made the acquaintance of Mr. Chu and feels they have gotten off to a very good start. They have established their relationship on a first-name basis and Mr. Chu’s smile seems to indicate that he will be friendly and easy to do business with Mr. Richardson. Mr. Richardson is very particularly pleased that he has treated Mr. Chu with respect for his Chinese background by calling him Hon-fei rather than his western name, David, which seems to him an unnecessary imposition of western culture.

In contrast, Mr. Chu feels quite uncomfortable with Mr. Richardson. He feels it will be difficult to work with him, and that Mr. Richardson might be rather insensitive to cultural differences. He is particularly bothered that Mr. Richardson used his given name, Hon-fei, instead of either David or Mr. Chu.

How do you account for their different impressions? Does culture play a role in the communication between these two men?

三、討論題

1. 為什么要學(xué)習(xí)跨文化交際課程？

2. 如何提高跨文化交際能力？