第二節(jié)　詞匯銜接與邏輯聯(lián)系語

在第一節(jié)中我們已討論了用于連句成篇的語法語義手段。在這一節(jié)中，我們將討論詞匯銜接和邏輯聯(lián)系語的連接作用以及語法、詞匯與邏輯聯(lián)系語的配合使用問題。

一、詞匯銜接

詞匯銜接指通過詞的重復(fù)、同義、反義、上下義、互補(bǔ)、整體與部分等關(guān)系來使語篇語義連貫。英語詞匯銜接關(guān)系通常分為兩大類：復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系和同現(xiàn)關(guān)系。

1.詞匯的復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系

復(fù)現(xiàn)指的是某一詞以原詞、同義詞、近義詞、上義詞、下義詞、概括詞或其他形式重復(fù)出現(xiàn)在語篇中，語篇中的句子通過這種復(fù)現(xiàn)手段的使用達(dá)到了相互銜接。詞匯的復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系可分為四種：①原詞復(fù)現(xiàn)；②同義詞、近義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)；③上下義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)；④概括詞復(fù)現(xiàn)。下面試舉例說明：

原詞復(fù)現(xiàn)：

例1：The two men at the counter read the menu.From the other end of the counter Nick Adams Watched them.

例2：The history of plastics is longer than you might expect.In fact that the first man made plastic ever to appear on the market was made over a hundred years ago.

在例1中，counter一詞反復(fù)出現(xiàn)提示了事件發(fā)生的地點(diǎn)；在例2中plastic一詞反復(fù)出現(xiàn)突出了文章的中心內(nèi)容是與plastic有關(guān)。這兩個例子都利用原詞復(fù)現(xiàn)手段的使用實(shí)現(xiàn)了文章語義的連貫。

同義詞、近義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)：

例3：He got a lot of presents from his friends and family.All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.

例4：Grades are the first concern of most Chinese senior high school students.They work hard to get high marks.

例5：Everything faded into mist.The past was erased，the erasure was forgotten，the lie became truth.

例6：Some students have the false belief that they will make good grades even if they don’t study.But the illusion is，some teachers say，is very harmful to the students’future.

在這里，例3和4是通過使用同義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)的手法，例5和例6是通過使用近義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)的手法，既實(shí)現(xiàn)了語義的連貫，又避免了重復(fù)。在例3中，gifts是presents的同義詞，均指禮物。在例4中，grades是marks的同義詞，均指分?jǐn)?shù)。在例5中，faded，erased和forgotten是近義詞，均表示逝去、忘掉的含義。在例6中，the false belief和the illusion是近義詞，均表示錯誤的想法。

上、下義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)：

上義詞指的是那些表示意義較概括，從含義分類講更高一類的詞，通常其詞義包括了下義詞的詞義。例如，animal是sheep，tiger，wolf，dog等的上義詞，sheep，tiger等詞則是animal的下義詞。下面是幾個通過上義詞、下義詞而形成的復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系的例子：

例7：Yesterday，a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury.The bird covered the distance in three minutes.

第二句的bird是第一句的pigeon的上義詞，這樣就出現(xiàn)了上義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系。

例8：Steve and Deborah are both doctors.She is a surgeon...

在這里，surgeon是doctor的下義詞，因而就構(gòu)成了下義詞復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系。又如：

例9：You will need to take some tools with you.You can get a hammer，a saw and a screwdriver from most big department stores.

在這個例子中，hammer，saw和screwdriver都可看做是tool的下義詞。

概括詞復(fù)現(xiàn)：

概括詞指的是那些表示一般意義的詞。例如，people，man，woman，thing，place，do，make等都是概括詞。概括詞與其所指的詞構(gòu)成的銜接是通過概括詞構(gòu)成復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系的。例如：

例10：A：What shall I do with all this crockery？

B：Leave the stuff there; someone will come to put it away.

例11：Can you tell me where to stay in Geneva？I’ve never been to the place.

在這兩個例子中，后一句中的概括詞（stuff，place）分別和前面的crockery和Geneva構(gòu)成相互銜接關(guān)系。stuff的下義詞為crockery，而place的下義詞則為Geneva（日內(nèi)瓦）這個地方。

在有些句組中，某一詞的反復(fù)出現(xiàn)不但能起到銜接句子的作用，而且能使句組獲得一定的文體效果。下面這段關(guān)于fog的文字就是一個好例子：

例12：Fog everywhere.Fog up the river，where it flows among green a its and meadows; fog down the river，where it rolls defiled among the tiers of shipping，and the waterside pollutions of a great（and dirty）city.Fog on the Essex marshes，fog on the Kentish heights.Fog creeping into the cabooses of collier-brigs; fog lying out on the yards and hovering in the rigging of great ships；fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats.Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pensioners，wheezing by the firesides of their wards；fog in the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful skipper，down in his close cabin；fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little prentice boy on deck.Chance people on the bridges peeing over the parapets into a nether sky of fog，with fog all round them...

這是選自英國著名小說家狄更斯的作品“Bleak House”中的一段文字。在這一段里，fog一詞共重復(fù)出現(xiàn)13次，不僅使得文義連貫、一氣呵成，而且極為生動地描述了濃霧彌漫的情景，取得了極好的文體效果。

2.詞匯的同現(xiàn)關(guān)系

同現(xiàn)關(guān)系指的是語篇中語法手段或詞匯手段共同出現(xiàn)在同一或臨近句子中的現(xiàn)象。在語篇中，圍繞著一定的話題，一定的詞語就往往會同時出現(xiàn)，而其他一些詞語就不大可能出現(xiàn)或根本不會出現(xiàn)。例如，在一篇探討漢語詞的分類的文章中，可以預(yù)料會出現(xiàn)“名詞”、“動詞”、“形容詞”、“副詞”等詞語，但不大可能會出現(xiàn)“叫號電話”、“叫人電話”、“傳呼電話”這種詞語；但如果文章談的是有關(guān)長途電話的種類，那就會出現(xiàn)“叫號電話”這類詞語，而不會出現(xiàn)“名詞”這類詞語。這種詞的同現(xiàn)關(guān)系與語篇范圍關(guān)系密切。詞匯的同現(xiàn)關(guān)系包括反義關(guān)系、互補(bǔ)關(guān)系等。例如：

例13：Jane is a good teacher，but she is a bad wife.

例14：In money I’m penniless，but in peace of mind I’m very rich.

在這個例子中，good和bad是一對反義詞，因而構(gòu)成了反義同現(xiàn)。

互補(bǔ)詞的互補(bǔ)性指的是非彼即此或非此即彼，所以互補(bǔ)詞不同于反義詞。反義詞的兩極之間可以有表示不同程度性質(zhì)的詞語，體現(xiàn)對立的層次性，如hot—cold這對反義詞之間可加進(jìn)warm，tepid，lukewarm，cool等詞?；パa(bǔ)詞在意義上是相互排斥的，如single—married，dead—alive，husband—wife，male—female，man—woman等，互補(bǔ)詞之間不能加入其他詞。下面是一個通過互補(bǔ)詞而形成互補(bǔ)同現(xiàn)的例子：

例15：Discrimination is undoubtedly practised against women in the field of scientific research.We don’t find men complaining that they are not being interviewed for positions that they are clearly qualified to fill.

在這個例子中，兩句之間的銜接主要是依靠互補(bǔ)詞men和women的對照表現(xiàn)出來的。

例16：John Smith says he feels very sorry for millionaires，who，instead of being masters of their wealth，are slaves of their millions.

在這個例子中，masters和slaves是一對互補(bǔ)詞，形成了互補(bǔ)關(guān)系。

語言中有些項目的排列是有一定規(guī)律的，比如星期一要排在星期二前面，一月要排在二月、三月……十二月前面。這些位于同一序列的詞語也可起到銜接句子的作用。例如：

例17：But spring and summer did mot come.Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden，but she did not give any to the Giants.“He is too selfish.”she said.So it was always winter there，and the north wind，the frost and the snow danced among the trees.

在這個例子中，spring，summer，autumn，winter屬于同一個序列，因而也是同現(xiàn)關(guān)系，也起到了銜接作用。

在語言實(shí)踐中，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)有些在意義上相互聯(lián)系的詞語常常同時出現(xiàn)在同一語篇中，這些詞語屬于同一個詞匯群類，形成了詞匯鏈，因而，當(dāng)人們遇到其中一個（些）詞語時，便會聯(lián)想到同一詞匯群類中的另一些詞。如，聽（讀）到“郵局”時，人們通常會聯(lián)想到“寄信”、“匯款”、“打電報”、“掛號信”、“郵票”、“包裹”等詞語。所以，當(dāng)一個詞匯群的詞語出現(xiàn)在一個語篇中時，這些詞語就能銜接句子，起著連句成篇的作用。例如：

例18：A great number of high school graduates continue their education in one of the many colleges or universities in the country.After four years，they receive a bachelor’s degree.Some continue studying for a master’s degree and perhaps a doctor’s degree.

這里的話題是高中畢業(yè)后的教育，所以出現(xiàn)了這么一個詞匯群類：high school，graduates，education，colleges，universities，a bachelor’s degree，studying，a master’s degree，a doctor’s degree.

例19：When you go to the doctor，you like to come away with a prescription.It makes you feel better to know you will get some medicine.But the doctor knows that medicine is not always needed.Some times all a sick person needs is some reassurance that all will be well.In such cases the doctor may prescribe a placebo.

在這段文字里集中出現(xiàn)了一批和醫(yī)院、疾病相關(guān)的詞匯（doctor，prescription，medicine，sick，prescribe，placebo），給讀者提供了一個看病的背景，突出了這段文字的中心話題。

二、邏輯聯(lián)系語

邏輯聯(lián)系語指的是表示各種邏輯意義的句子連接手段。邏輯聯(lián)系語的功能是表示兩個或更多的句子之間的某種邏輯關(guān)系，并指出句子是在什么意義上相互聯(lián)系起來的。邏輯聯(lián)系語還可用來表明語篇中的各個組成部分之間語義上的聯(lián)系。

從形式上看，邏輯聯(lián)系語可以由以下三類語言手段充當(dāng)：①詞語（包括連詞和副詞），如and，but，for，then，yet，so，therefore，anyway等；②短語，如in addition，as a result，on the contrary，in other words等；③分詞獨(dú)立主格結(jié)構(gòu)或插入語，如considering all that，to conclude，all things considered，that is to say，what is more，what is more important等。

從意義上看，邏輯聯(lián)系語可以表示很多種不同語義關(guān)系，在討論邏輯聯(lián)系語時語言學(xué)家通常把它們表示的關(guān)系分為四大類：增補(bǔ)、轉(zhuǎn)折、原因、時間。在這四大類下面又分出若干小類，例如在“增補(bǔ)”這一大類下，又分出了“增補(bǔ)”（and，and also，furthermore，besides，in addition）、“否定”（nor，and...not）、“選擇”（or，or else，alternatively）、“說明”（that is，I mean，in other words）、“示例”（for instance，thus）、“相似”（likewise，similarly，in the same way）、“反意”（on the other hand，by contrast）、“事后補(bǔ)充”（incidentally，by the way）等幾個小類。

邏輯聯(lián)系語表示的語義關(guān)系是多樣的。下面我們舉例說明幾類比較常見的邏輯聯(lián)系語所表示的語義關(guān)系。

1.表示列舉

列舉這一語義關(guān)系通常由連接性狀語表示，它們對所敘述的事情逐一列舉。例如：

例20：I want to give just two pieces of advice.One，there is no reason why he should know about your decision.Two，it would be better if you acted before he finds out.

在這里，one和two表示了列舉這一語義關(guān)系。能用于表示列舉的詞語很多，常見的有，first，second，...；first（ly），secondly，...；one，two...；for one thing...（and）for another（thing）；in the first place，first of all，to begin with，to start with，for a start；neat，then，last，finally，in conclusion，last of all，to conclude等。

2.表示增補(bǔ)

增補(bǔ)這一語義關(guān)系可以由and，and also，also，too，and...too，furthermore，in addition，besides，moreover，what is more等來表示，例如：

例21：I’m not looking for a job.Furthermore，I am not going to look for a job.

例22：The public can see the paintings next week.What is more，they can buy them for as little as ten dollars upwards.

例23：The house faces north，so it never gets the sun.Also，it is rather damp.

3.表示轉(zhuǎn)折或?qū)Ρ?/p>

轉(zhuǎn)折或?qū)Ρ瓤捎胹till，but，yet，nevertheless，thorough，instead，anyhow，on the contrary，all the same，in fact，at the same time，on the other hand，as a matter of fact，by contrast，while，whereas等詞語來表示。

例如：

例24：There will still be difficulties.But they can be overcome.

例25：You weren’t boring me.On the contrary，you’re interesting me frightfully.

例26：He did not show anyone the papers.Instead，as soon as he got a chance，he burnt them.

4.表示解釋

解釋指的是邏輯聯(lián)系語引導(dǎo)的分句，對前面已講到的內(nèi)容加以澄清、舉例說明或進(jìn)行精確的描述。能表示這一語義關(guān)系的有：that is，that is to say，namely，for example，for instance，such as，in other words，to put it another way等。例如：

例27：He is a scholar who is devoted to his research to a reprehensible extent.That is to say，he neglects his family and does not fulfill his responsibilities as a citizen.

例28：It is important that young children should see things，and not merely read about them.For example，it is valuable experience to take them on a trip to a farm.

5.表示等同

等同指的是邏輯聯(lián)系語所引導(dǎo)的上文和下文所表示的意義相同或相似，或在重要性上差不多。因而，有時也可把這種語義關(guān)系稱為同位，用于表示等同的邏輯聯(lián)系語很多，常見的有：equally，likewise，namely，similarly，in the same way，in other words，that is，I mean，that is to say等。例如：

例29：You must pack plenty of food for the journey.Likewise，you’ll need warm clothes，so pack them too.

例30：He is being a fool.In other words，he is behaving foolishly.

表示等同語義的邏輯聯(lián)系語有些（如equally，likewise，similarly）可歸入“比較照應(yīng)”。

6.表示原因結(jié)果

誗表示原因。表示原因（reason）的邏輯聯(lián)系語不多，常見的有連詞for，since，because，as；介詞詞組due to，because of，on account of，owing to，thanks to等。例如：

例31：Mrs.Cox’s favorite subject is literature，and her most exciting classes are those on the literature of Black Americans.For Mrs.Cox，like most of the students in her school，is Black.

例32：When I saw her in the river I was frightened.For at that point the currents were dangerous.

誗表示結(jié)果。結(jié)果這一語義關(guān)系可以用accordingly，consequently，hence，now，so，therefore，thus，as a consequence，in consequence，for that reason，as a result，of course等詞語表示。例如：

例33：He was too sick to stay.Accordingly，we sent him home.

例34：The documents were not ready.Consequently，we could not sign them.

例35：They refused to pay the higher rent when an increase was announced.As a result，they were evicted from their apartment.

7.表示推論

推論這一語義關(guān)系可以由下列詞語表示：else，otherwise，then in other words，in that case等。例如：

例36：A：Please give my regards to John.B：Then you’re not coming with me？

例37：You must get some more petrol.Otherwise，we will not have enough to get us to the next town.

例38：You say your father might object？In that case I will not press the matter.

8.表示總結(jié)

表示總結(jié)的聯(lián)系語主要是用在句、段或語篇的最后部分，對前面的內(nèi)容作出概括或總結(jié)。能表示這一意義的有：altogether，overall，then，therefore，thus，（all）in all，in conclusion，in sum，in short，in brief，on the whole，to conclude，to sum up，to summarize等。例如：

例39：He lost his watch，his car broke down，and he got a letter of complaint from a customer：all in all，he had a bad day.

例40：The film has a very unusual plot，with plenty of action.Both the acting and photography are excellent.To sum up，this is a film you should not miss.

9.表示替換轉(zhuǎn)題

（1）表示替換。替換這一語義關(guān)系可用again，alternatively，or，rather，better（still），worse，on the other hand，or at least，or rather等詞語來表示。替換的目的可能是糾正前面的說法，也可能是用肯定的敘述來替代否定的敘述，或用真實(shí)的結(jié)果來替代原先的預(yù)料。例如：

例41：You can walk home，if you wish.Or rather，I can give you a lift in my car.

例42：If things get any worse，we might have to arrange a public meeting to discuss the matter.Better still，we could even organize a demonstration.

（2）表示轉(zhuǎn)題。轉(zhuǎn)題指引進(jìn)新的一層意思或引進(jìn)新的話題，能用來表示轉(zhuǎn)題的邏輯聯(lián)系語有：now，incidentally，by the way，to change the subject等。例如：

例43：We have settled that at last.Now，what was the other thing we wanted to discuss？

例44：I must go now.Incidentally if you want that book I’ll bring it next time.

練習(xí)：

1.As water flows along the ground，it picks up sands，pepples，even boulders.By this process enormous amounts of mud and rock are moved from the land to the sea.Each year the Mississippi River carries 730million tons of solid matter in to the Gulf of Mexico.

2.Professor Richard Larson，an electrical engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology，hates queuing but rather than tear his hair out，he decided to study the subject.His first finding，which backs up earlier work at the US National Science Foundation，was that the degree of annoyance was not directly related to the time.

3.Military awards have long been considered symbolic of royalty，and thus when the United States was young nation just finished with revolution and eager to distance itself from anything tasting of monarchy，there was strong sentiment against military decoration.For a century，from the end of Revolutionary War until the civil War，the United States awarded no military honors.The institution of the Medal of Honor in 1861 was a source of great discussion and concern.From the Civil War until World War I，the Medal of Honor was the only military award given by the United States government，and today it is awarded only in the most extreme cases of heroism.Although the United States is still somewhat wary of granting military awards，several awards have been instituted since World War I.

4.A placebo is a sugar pill，a harmless shot，or an empty capsule.Even though they have no medicine in them，these things seem to make people well.The patient thinks it is medicine and begins to get better.How does this happen？

5.Husbands who complain about their wives’spending habits may be afraid that they are losing power in their marriage.Wives，on the other hand，may waste huge amounts of money because they are angry at their husbands.

答案及詳解：

1.在這里首先應(yīng)用了同義詞sand和mud的復(fù)現(xiàn)；然后使用了上下義詞的復(fù)現(xiàn)，即rock泛指石頭是pepple（鵝卵石）和boulder（巨石）的上義詞；而solid matter（固體）又是sand和rock的上義詞。

2.這段文字里出現(xiàn)了同義詞和近義詞的復(fù)現(xiàn)。在這里，hate，tear one’s hair out，annoyance都表示生氣。

3.在這里首先應(yīng)用了原詞military awards的復(fù)現(xiàn)，在這段里共出現(xiàn)了三次。其次，使用了近義詞royalty和monarchy的復(fù)現(xiàn)，這兩個詞在這里均表示王權(quán)、獨(dú)裁；同義詞decoration，award，medal這三個詞均指獎?wù)隆?/p>

4.在這里同屬于一個語義場景的詞匯同現(xiàn)。placebo安慰劑，pill藥片，shot打針，capsule膠囊，medicine藥物，patient病人，get better好轉(zhuǎn)，這些詞都屬于有病看病這一場景。

5.在這里husbands和wives作為一對互補(bǔ)詞同現(xiàn)。