第十三章　國 際 貿(mào) 易

第一節(jié)　文章閱讀與翻譯

Passage 1

World Trade

世 界 貿(mào) 易

［1］In today's complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient.Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills.This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity.As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved.

［2］For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any of its own.Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil1, Columbia2 and Guatemala3) that grow coffee efficiently.On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them.If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive.So instead of barter, which is the trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United States receives money in payment for what it sells.4 It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles from Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United States.

［3］Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons.The first, as mentioned above, is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs.Raw materials are scattered around the world.Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East.Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them.

［4］Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs.Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.

［5］Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries.Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries.It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce them domestically.According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage.5 It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.

［6］Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style.6 Even though the United States produces more automobiles than any other country, it will imports large numbers of autos from Germany, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States.

［7］For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity.When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade.When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists.Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessary imports.

Notes

1.Brazil: Brazil shares a border with almost every other country in South America—only Chile and Ecuador are untouched—and covers almost half the continent.It is the fifth largest country in the world, behind Russia, Canada, China, and the U.S.A., with an area of eight and a half million square kilometers.Despite its vast expanse of territory, Brazil's population is concentrated in the major cities of its coast.Brazil's society and economy were based on agriculture and mining, especially the export-oriented production of sugar and gold.

2.The Republic of Columbia: Colombia is bordered on the northwest by Panama, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, and on the southwest by Peru and Ecuador.Through the western half of the country, three Andean ranges run north and south.The eastern half is a low, jungle-covered plain, drained by spurs of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers, inhabited mostly by isolated tropical-forest Indian tribes.The fertile plateau and valley of the eastern range are the most densely populated parts of the country.The mountainous character of much of Colombia's territory, along with the attendant climatic variations of the different vertical zones, allows for the production of an unusually wide range of both tropical and temperate-zone crops, from bananas and sugarcane to wheat, barley, and potatoes.Coffee has long represented the backbone of the Colombian economy, bringing premium prices on the world market and constituting about half of all legal exports.

3.Guatemala: A country of central America.The dominance of an Indian culture within its interior uplands distinguishes Guatemala from its Central American neighbours.The country's contemporary capital, Guatemala City, is a major metropolitan centre; Quetzaltenango in the western highlands is the nucleus of the Indian population.Guatemala is a less-developed country largely dependent upon traditional commercial crops such as coffee, sugar, and bananas as the basis of its market economy.

4.barter: Trading in which goods or services are exchanged without the use of cash.易貨貿(mào)易

譯文：因此，美國銷售商品時，接受的是貨幣形式的支付，而不進行不以貨幣為媒介的貿(mào)易——易貨貿(mào)易。

5.comparative advantage: Concept in economics that a country should specialize in producing and exporting only those goods and services which it can produce more efficiently (at lower opportunity cost) than other goods and services (which it should import).Comparative advantage results from different endowments of the factors of production (capital, land, labor) entrepreneurial skill, power resources, technology, etc.It therefore follows that free trade is beneficial to all countries, because each can gain if it specializes according to its comparative advantage.比較優(yōu)勢（如果與生產(chǎn)其他商品的成本相比，一個國家生產(chǎn)的某種產(chǎn)品的成本比另一個國家低，那么，該國就在這種商品的生產(chǎn)上與另一個國家相比具有比較優(yōu)勢。）

譯文：根據(jù)經(jīng)濟理論，日本應該生產(chǎn)和出口那些因生產(chǎn)費用較低而獲利的產(chǎn)品，購買和進口那些自己需要的、別國也因生產(chǎn)費用較低而獲利的產(chǎn)品。

6.譯文：最后，產(chǎn)品的設計或式樣各不相同，也是產(chǎn)生對外貿(mào)易的原因。

Words and Expressions

1.self-sufficient adj.able to provide everything you need, especially food, for yourself without the help of other people 自給自足的

2.cumbersome adj.awkward because of being large, heavy or ineffective 累贅的，繁瑣的

3.restrictive adj.limiting the freedom of someone or preventing something from growing 限制（性）的，約束（性）的

restrictive trade practice a business agreement between companies which controls prices or the areas in which goods are sold, preventing fair competition from other companies限制性貿(mào)易措施

4.raw material: material that came from nature and is still in an unprocessed or minimally processed state 原材料

5.scatter v.to (cause to) move far apart in different directions 分布，分散

6.deposit n.a layer of a mineral, metal etc that is left in soil or rocks though a natural process 礦藏

7.derive sth.from sth.to get or obtain something from something else 得到，獲得

8.innovation n.(the use of) a new idea, method or invention 新觀念，新方法，新發(fā)明

Passage 2

China Uses Rules on Global Trade to Its Advantage

中國讓全球貿(mào)易規(guī)則為其所用

［1］With China's exports soaring, even as other major economies struggle to recover from the recession1, evidence is mounting that Beijing is skillfully using inconsistencies in international trade rules to spur its own economy at the expense of others, including the United States.

［2］Seeking to maintain its export dominance, China is engaged in a two-pronged effort: fighting protectionism2 among its trade partners and holding down the value of its currency.3

［3］China vigorously defends its economic policies.On Sunday, Premier Wen Jiabao criticized international pressure on China to let the currency appreciate4, calling it “finger pointing.” He said that the renminbi, China's currency, would be kept “basically stable.”

［4］To maximize its advantage, Beijing is exploiting a fundamental difference between two major international bodies: the World Trade Organization, which wields strict, enforceable penalties for countries that impede trade, and the International Monetary Fund5, which acts as a kind of watchdog for global economic policy but has no power over countries like China that do not borrow money from it.

［5］China had a $198 billion trade surplus with the rest of the world last year, with its exports to the United States outpacing imports by more than four to one.Despite that, in the last 12 months, Beijing has filed more cases with the WTO's powerful trade tribunals in Geneva6 than any other country complaining about another's trade practices.

［6］In addition, Beijing has worked to suppress a series of IMF.reports since 2007 documenting how the country has substantially undervalued its currency, the renminbi, said three people with detailed knowledge of China's actions.

［7］China buys dollars and other foreign currencies—worth several hundred billion dollars a year—by selling more of its own currency, which then depresses its value.That intervention helped Chinese exports to surge 46 percent in February compared with a year earlier.

［8］Many prominent academic economists see a basic contradiction in the global system of oversight on trade and currency.

［9］“Many of us would like to see the WTO-style commitments—with people's feet being held to the fire—at other international agencies, like the IMF.,” said Jagdish Bhagwati, a Columbia University economist.

［10］Western countries hoped last year to bring international pressure to bear on China, after years of complaining that Beijing keeps the renminbi artificially low.

Notes

1.recession: a period of reduced economic activity 經(jīng)濟衰退

2.protectionism: Governmental policy aimed at shielding a fragile economy, or a week or critical sector, from cheaper or better imports through imposition of high duty rates (tariff barriers), quotas, and/or inordinately stringent or time consuming inspection or quality regulations (non-tariff barriers).All countries practice protectionism in one form or another but, generally, without going to any extreme.貿(mào)易保護主義

3.譯文：為了保持出口的優(yōu)勢，中國主要致力于作兩個方面的努力：一是打擊貿(mào)易伙伴的貿(mào)易保護主義，二是控制其貨幣的價值。

4.appreciate: to increase the value of 貨幣升值

5.IMF: The International Monetary Fund is an international organization that was created on July 22, 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and came into existence on December 27, 1945 when 29 countries and regions signed the Articles of Agreement.The IMF's stated goal was to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world's international payment system post-World War II.Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily.Through this activity and others such as surveillance of its members? economies and policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its members.Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C., United States.國際貨幣基金組織

6.Geneva: Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland (after Zurich) and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland.Geneva is a global city, a financial centre, and worldwide centre for diplomacy and the most important UN international co-operation centre with New York thanks to the presence of numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross.日內瓦

Words and Expressions

1.inconsistencies n.the quality of being inconsistent and lacking a harmonious uniformity among things or parts 前后矛盾；不一致

2.vigorously adv.with vigor; in a vigorous manner 有活力地；積極地

3.tribunals n.a court or forum of justice 審理委員會；特別法庭

4.intervention n.the act of intervening in a situation 干預

5.prominent adj.widely and popularly known 知名的；重要的

6.commitments n.an agreement or pledge to do something in the future; especially: an engagement to assume a financial obligation at a future date 承諾；責任；義務

Passage 3

Foreign Exchange Trading 外 匯 交 易

［1］Without foreign exchange trading, international trade itself could not exist.In former times trade was based on bartering—goods were exchanged for other goods.The introduction of precious metals (i.e., gold and silver) to pay for goods can be considered the forerunner of the foreign exchange market.

［2］The Greeks and Romans commonly used gold as a medium of exchange.Most world trade continued to be based on gold until the nineteenth century.But then industrialization in Western Europe and the United States had boosted world trade to such an extent that gold reserves were no longer adequate to meet the requirements.Governments introduced a par value1 of their respective local currencies2 in gold.Thus, the currencies were related to one another through a system called the gold standard.The gold standard system determined the value of all currencies based on gold.This meant the values of different currencies could be compared in terms of one another.

［3］The system worked well until World War I, when trade was interrupted.After the war, currencies fluctuated widely in terms of gold and, thus, in relation to each other.3 The value of currencies was meant to be regulated by supply and demand (the market mechanism), but speculators often interfered with this mechanism.So in an effort to create more stable exchange markets, some countries, notably the United States, England, and France, returned to the gold standard.Except for a brief period in the early 1930s, the United States stayed on the gold standard.By 1971 it was the only country whose currency remained convertible into gold, and so, by declaring the dollar inconvertible, the gold standard was finally abolished.4

［4］In 1944 toward the end of World War II, the Western industrialized nations realized that foreign trade would be necessary to quickly and effectively heal the wounds of war.To create a calm and stable foreign exchange market, the United States government called for a conference in the summer of 1944.It was held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.At this conference, both the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development5 were established.

［5］The Bretton Woods Agreement6 stipulated that all member countries would express the value of their currencies in gold.However, only the United States dollar was convertible into gold, at the price of $35 an ounce.

［6］Central banks7 of the member countries were required to intervene in the foreign exchange markets to keep the value of their currencies within 1percent of the par value.This intervention was achieved by buying or selling foreign exchange or gold.A given currency could, therefore, never rise above nor fall below fixed points, which are called intervention points.These are the prices beyond which the central bank intervenes.This is called the system of fixed exchange rates.

［7］The system of fixed exchange rates worked well until the late 1960s and early 1970s.At that time a number of countries devalued their currencies.This meant that their currencies were now worth less in terms of gold.England in 1967, France in 1969, and the United States in 1971 and 1973, devalued their currencies.This caused an almost unprecedented turbulence in the foreign exchange markets.In addition, countries such as West Germany and Holland revalued their currencies (increased the par value of their currencies in terms of gold).Intervention by central banks became very costly.Foreign currency and gold reserves were drained.Countries had to buy their own currency with gold and foreign exchange in order to keep its value above the minimum intervention point, as agreed at Bretton Woods.

［8］It is not surprising, then, that the world saw a return to a floating exchange rate system.Central banks were no longer required to support their own currencies.England, France (only temporarily), Italy, Japan, and the United States all floated their currencies.Western Europe, united in the Common Market8, moved to preserve the fixed-rate system but allowed a widening of the intervention points to within 2.25 percent of the par value of the currencies.9 This system became known as the snake since these currencies move up and down together against currencies outside the snake.The British and the Italians, now members of the Common Market, are expected to eventually join their currencies to the snake.

［9］The foreign exchange market is the mechanism through which foreign currencies are traded.It is not an actual market-place but a system of telephone and telex communications between banks, customers, and middlemen (foreign exchange brokers, acting for a client vis-a-vis the bank).10

Notes

1.par value: Apparent worth or the nominal value shown on the principal (“face” or “head”) side of a bill of exchange, currency, security (stock/share, bond), or other type of financial instrument.平價，票面價值

2.currency: Tokens used as money in a country.In addition to the metal coins and paper bank notes, modern currency also includes checks drawn on bank accounts, money orders, travelers checks, and will soon include electronic money or digital cash.貨幣

3.譯文：戰(zhàn)后，以黃金計算的各國幣值激烈波動，因而相互比值也極不穩(wěn)定。

4.譯文：到1971年，美國是惟一的本國貨幣能兌換成黃金的國家，所以在美國宣布美國停兌黃金后，金本位制就最后被廢除了。

5.International Bank For Reconstruction And Development (IBRD)：Original name of the World Bank.Established together with International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1944 as part of Bretton Woods system to rebuild the Western economies shattered by second world War through financing of commercial and infrastructural projects.Though it does not compete with commercial banks, it may participate in loan syndication, and its lending policies are based largely on strict commercial criteria.Its member countries must also be members of the IMF, and (as in IMF) have voting power weighted according to their contribution to the Bank.For example, the US has about 20 percent of the voting power and always chooses the bank's president.國際復興開發(fā)銀行（現(xiàn)更名為世界銀行）

6.Bretton Woods agreement: An agreement signed in 1944 that outlined rules and regulations for an international monetary system.It established a fixed exchange rate linked to the U.S.dollar, with other countries pegging their currency to the dollar.It created the International Monetary Fund (IMF), as well as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), a precursor for the modern World Bank.By the 1970s the fixed exchange rate collapsed, as the U.S.was no longer willing to exchange the dollar for gold.The agreement was so named because it was signed in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.布雷頓森林協(xié)定

7.central bank: Autonomous or semi-autonomous organization entrusted by a government to, administer certain key monetary functions, such as to (1) issue, manage, and preserve value of the country's currency, (2) regulate the amount of money supply, (3) supervise the operations of commercial banks, (4) and serve as a banker's bank and the local lender of last resort.Some Central banks (such as the Bank Of England) provide all these functions, others (such as in Germany and the US) employ two or more organizations.Most Central banks are owned by their respective governments (such as Bank Of England, Banque De France, Reserve Bank Of India), others (such as Belgian Central Bank and Bank Of Japan) have mixed ownerships, and two (Germany's Bundesbank and the US Federal Reserve System) are owned by private banks.Bank of Sweden (1656) was the first Central bank, followed by the Bank of England (1694) and the Bank of France (1800).Bank of Japan was established in 1888, and the US Federal Reserve System in 1913.中央銀行

8.common market: Group formed by countries within a geographical area to promote duty free trade and free movement of labor and capital among its members.European community (as a legal entity within the framework of European Union) is the best known example.Common markets impose common external tariff (CET) on imports from non-member countries.共同市場

9.譯文：英國、法國（只是暫時地）、意大利、日本和美國都讓它們的貨幣實行浮動。聯(lián)合在共同市場里的西歐采取了行動以保持固定匯率制，但是允許把各國貨幣的干預點擴大到貨幣平價的2.25%的幅度內。

10.譯文：外匯市場是進行外幣交易的一種機制，它并不是一個真正的市場，而只是銀行、顧客和中間人（代表委托人和銀行打交道的外匯經(jīng)紀人）之間進行電話和電傳聯(lián)系的一項體系。

Words and Expressions

1.forerunner n.something or someone that acts as an early and less advanced model for what will appear in the future, or a warning or sign of what is to follow 先驅

2.medium of exchange commodity, currency, or a financial instrument used in commercial transactions between buyers and sellers as a measure and standard of value.A distinguishing characteristic of money is its ability to be used as a medium of exchange.交易媒介（指貨幣、支票等）

3.boost v.to improve or increase something推進，提高

4.respective adj.relating or belonging to each of the individual people or things you have just mentioned各自的，各個的

5.fluctuate v.to change or vary, especially continuously and between one level or thing and another變動，上下，動搖

6.speculator n.Futures market (期貨市場) participant who attempts to gain from anticipated change in prices of commodities or financial instruments.Speculators aim primarily at quick profit from a short-term acquisition of assets.投機者，投機商人

7.stay on to continue to be in a place, job or school after the other people who were with you have left 保持；留在（繼續(xù)住下去）

8.convertible adj.specialized describes a type of money that can be easily exchanged into other types of money可變換的

9.heal v.to make or become well again, especially after a cut or other injury 痊愈，使??復原，和解

10.stipulate v.to state exactly how something must be or must be done 規(guī)定，明定

11.intervene v.to intentionally become involved in a difficult situation in order to improve it or prevent it from getting worse.插入，調停，干涉

12.devalue v.to reduce the rate at which money can be exchanged for foreign money 貶值13.unprecedented adj.never having happened or existed in the past空前的14.turbulence n.a state of confusion and lack of order喧囂，狂暴，騷亂15.drain v.to reduce or cause something to reduce 耗盡

16.broker n.person who serves as a trusted agent or intermediary in commercial negotiations or transactions.Brokers are usually licensed professionals in fields where specialized knowledge is required, such as finance, insurance, and real estate.經(jīng)紀人

17.vis-à-vis prep.in relation to 關于

第二節(jié)　翻譯技巧——語篇的銜接與翻譯（一）

1.語篇的概念

翻譯總是從詞句譯起，遣詞造句是翻譯的基本功，但翻譯不是詞句的簡單組合，而是超越詞句的語篇材料，蘊含著文本的語氣、文本、形式、隱喻或音韻效果。（潘紅，2004）由此可見，只有在具有語篇意識的前提下譯者才能完成所承擔的翻譯任務。

目前為止，國內外的語言學家和翻譯家對語篇給出了不同的定義。

韓禮德（2007）（M.A.K.Halliday）對語篇的定義是“語篇這個詞在語言學中用來指任何長度的、語義完整的口語或書面語的段落”。

諾德（1997）（Christiane Nord）認為“語篇是交際活動過程”。

胡壯麟（1994）對語篇的定義是：“語篇指任何不完全受句子語法約束的在一定語境下表示完整語義的自然語言?！?/p>

李運興（1998）認為“所謂語篇，即在交際功能上相對完整和獨立的一個語言片段。內容相對完整的文章或著作節(jié)選可稱為語篇?！?/p>

張德祿（2003）認為語篇不是一個超級句子，而是一個意義單位，是人們實際進行的語言交流的實例，是在一定的語境中講的話或寫的文章，從最短的表述，如人們臨危時喊出的“Help! Help!”，到多數(shù)情況下要由若干句話、數(shù)十句話以至更多的話組成。

魏在江（2007）在討論了語篇界說的困惑之后認為，語篇的界定應該從語義結構而不是語法結構的角度著眼，因為語篇首先是一個“意義單位”，其形式的大小或長短是由意義的簡單或復雜而決定的，但只要具備了以下一些基本特征：結構上的銜接性、句際間的邏輯性、意義上的完整性、語義上的連貫性、交際功能的獨立性、與情景語境的一致性等，任何長度的口頭話語或書面文字都可視為語篇。

為了能夠清楚全面地理解語篇概念，本書采用魏在江的定義。

2.語篇的銜接

語篇中的銜接（cohesion）和連貫（coherence）是篇章語言學（text linguistics）中兩個重要的概念。胡壯麟先生對銜接與連貫之間關系的描述是：對一個有意義的可接受的語篇來說，它在語言各層次（如語義、詞匯、句法、語音等）的成分都可表現(xiàn)出某種程度的銜接，從而使說話人在交際過程中所欲表達的意圖貫通整個語篇，達到交際目的。但在特殊情況下，語言成分之間的銜接并不能保證語篇的交際意圖總是取得連貫；另一方面，銜接不太明顯的語篇有時是內容連貫的。

由此可見，語篇的銜接與連貫雖關系緊密但也有所區(qū)別。本章與第十四章將重點講解銜接的概念、手段以及銜接手段在英漢語篇翻譯中的應用。第十五章和第十六章將重點講解語篇的連貫。

2.1 銜接的概念和手段

在1962年韓禮德首次提出了銜接的概念。1976年，韓禮德和哈桑出版了Cohesion in English一書，在此書中，他們認為“銜接是一種語義上的概念，它指存在于語篇內的意義關系。銜接發(fā)生在一些成分依賴于其他成分的語篇內。一種銜接手段預設著另一種銜接手段的存在。銜接一部分通過語法手段表達出來，一部分通過詞匯表達出來。”韓禮德和哈桑又將銜接的語法手段和詞匯手段細劃為五種手段：（1）照應（reference），（2）替代（substitution），（3）省略（ellipsis），（4）連接（conjunction），（5）詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion）。本章重點講解照應、替代和省略，下一章重點講解連接和詞匯銜接。

2.2 銜接的語法手段

2.2.1 照應（reference）

照應是指語篇中的一個成分作為另一個成分的參照點，指用代詞等語法手段來表示語義關系。韓禮德將照應分為人稱照應、指示照應和比較照應。

（1）人稱照應

人稱照應是運用話語情景中的功能、通過人稱類別表現(xiàn)的照應。傳統(tǒng)的人稱分類的區(qū)別僅在于第一（I, we）、第二（you）和第三人稱（he, she, it, they, one），而這里的人稱范疇既包括這三種人稱代詞的主格和賓格（me, us, you, him, her, it, them, one），又包括其各自的所有格形容詞（my, our, your, his, her, its, their, one's）和所有格代詞（mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs）。

例：Passage 1第7段

For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity.When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade.When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists.Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessary imports.

分析：此段第二、三句中的they均與nations照應，第四句中的them 也與該句中的nations照應。

譯文：對多數(shù)國家來說，進出口是最重要的國際間的活動。一國的出口量大于進口量，就稱之為出現(xiàn)了貿(mào)易順差；進口量大于出口量，就存在貿(mào)易逆差。各國都力圖保持貿(mào)易順差，以確保掌握必要商品進口的手段。

（2）指示照應

指示照應是指說話人通過指明事物在時間和空間上的遠近來確定所指的對象，主要是由指示代詞（this, these, that, those）和指示副詞（here, there, now, then例）體現(xiàn)的照應。

例：Passage 1 第5段2-5句

....Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries.It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce them domestically.According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage.It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.

分析：第3句中的these和第4句中的those items 均與第2句中的radios and television sets 相照應，第5句中的those countries 與that have a comparative advantage in the desired items 是相互照應的關系。

譯文：日本之所以能出口大量的收音機和電視機，是因為日本的生產(chǎn)效率高于別國。對于美國來說，進口日本貨要比自己生產(chǎn)合算。根據(jù)經(jīng)濟理論，日本應該生產(chǎn)和出口那些因生產(chǎn)費用較低而獲利的產(chǎn)品，購買和進口那些自己需要的、別國也因生產(chǎn)費用較低而獲利的產(chǎn)品。

（3）比較照應

比較照應是通過相同性或相似性達到的間接照應，通常是由表示相同、相似或相異的形容詞和副詞，以及形容詞或副詞的比較級體現(xiàn)的。如same, identical, different, similarly, likewise, so, such, the same, differently, better, more等。

例1：....The picture is not the same all over the world.The average length of time a worker takes to find a new job can be much longer in one country than for a similar worker in another country experiencing similar conditions.In other words, some countries are better at making the adjustment than others.This is partly because some countries have more effective adjustment policies.Those without effective policies are missing an opportunity.

分析：該段中的表示相同的the same, similar, 以及比較級much longer, better, more effective構成了比較照應，使文中前后事物的關系清晰可見。

譯文：這種情形也是因國而異的，有時，兩個工種和經(jīng)歷的相似的工人在不同的國家找一份新工作所花費的時間是不同的。換句話說，有些國家更擅長于作出調整，部分原因就在于有些國家的調整政策比其他國家的更有效，那些沒有調整政策的國家就會坐失良機。

2.2.2 替代（substitution）

替代是指用替代詞來取代語篇中出現(xiàn)的詞。替代不僅可以避免語篇中語言的重復，而且可以起到銜接上下文的作用。被替代的部分可以是名詞、動詞或者是句子，所以可以分為名詞性替代、動詞性替代和分句性替代。

（1）名詞性替代：最常見的英語名詞替代詞為one, ones, some, the other, others, the same, the kind, the former, the latter等。

例1：For example, technological advance has also had a strong impact on employment and productivity, benefiting some jobs, hurting others.

分析：others替代了some other jobs

譯文：例如，科技的進步對就業(yè)狀況和生產(chǎn)力的提高就會產(chǎn)生很大的影響，對某些工作的就業(yè)會有利，但對其他的工作就會造成不利的影響。

例2：Collection is of two kinds: collection with bill of exchange against documents and collection with a clean bill.In practice, the latter is not so widely used as the former.

分析：此例第二句中的the latter 和the former分別替代前句中的兩個名詞短語collection with bill of exchange against documents和collection with a clean bill。

譯文：托收可分為兩種：一種是跟單匯票的托收；另一種則是光票托收。在實際操作中，后一種沒有第一種用得廣泛。

（2）動詞性替代：這種替代可以使用助動如do, does, did。

例：A: Do they buy their drinks at the local supermarket?

B: No, but we do.

分析：B句中的do替代A句中的動詞buy

譯文：A: 他們在當?shù)爻欣镔I飲料嗎？

B: 他們不買，但我們買。

（3）分句性替代：這種替代經(jīng)常使用一個形式詞，如so, this, that來代替整個或部分句子。

例：Following the OPEC oil embargo, for example, United State automakers began to make greater numbers of small cars and fewer of the large models they had previously produced.This did not happen because government intervention had ordered this charge.

分析：This所替代的是分句United State automakers began to make greater numbers of small cars and fewer of the large models they had previously produced.

譯文：歐佩克頒布石油禁運令之后，例如，美國汽車制造商開始打算生產(chǎn)更多的小型車而減少原有大型車的產(chǎn)量。這種情況之所以沒有發(fā)生，是因為政府的干預控制了局面。

2.2.3 省略（ellipsis）

省略是指把語篇中的某個成分省去不提。這種方法也可以避免重復，突出新的信息，使語篇上下緊湊。省略同樣可以分為動詞性省略、名詞性省略和分句性省略。

（1）名詞性省略：這種省略是將名詞詞組的中心詞省略掉，只保留限定詞或限定詞加前置修飾語。

例：Attitude surveys focus on customers? perceptions of, and attitudes to, products and the companies who make them.

分析：perceptions of 后面省略了products and the companies who make them。

譯文：顧客態(tài)度調查主要是調查顧客對產(chǎn)品及廠家的認識和看法。

（2）動詞性省略：這種省略是指動詞詞組中的省略現(xiàn)象。動詞詞組可能僅是以一個實義動詞為中心組成的詞組，也可能是以助動詞＋實義動詞為中心組成的詞組。所以，動詞性省略有時省略的是惟一的實義動詞，有時將實義動詞省略，保留助動詞。

例：Under this system, the value of a currency unit was not directly fixed or defined in terms of gold but rather (....) in terms of a currency which was fixed in terms of so much gold.

分析：此句中but rather后面省略了was fixed or defined。

譯文：在這種貨幣制度下，一貨幣單位值不是以黃金形式直接確定或規(guī)定的，而是以另一種由含金度多少而定的貨幣來確定的。

（3）分句性省略：這種省略指整個分句被省略，多見于對話中。

例：A: Do you mean they are both named George?

B: No.One is Samuel, the other is Albert.

分析：根據(jù)上下文情景可以清楚的知道no后面回答的意思是什么，所以B句中的No后面省略了應回答的句子they are not both named George.這樣語言就更加簡潔了。

譯文：A: 你的意思是他們兩位都叫喬治嗎？

B: 不，其中一個叫塞繆，另一個叫艾爾波特。

2.3 英漢照應、替代和省略銜接手段的區(qū)別

英漢篇章都要求內容的一致性，結構的銜接性和意義的連貫性，為此，也都具有各自的銜接手段。英漢語篇在語法銜接手段方面還是存在著一些差異的。只有在了解了這些差異的前提下，譯者才能在英譯漢或漢譯英時保證譯文結構的銜接性和意義的連貫性。

2.3.1 照應的區(qū)別

照應的類型方面，英漢兩種語言沒有太大差別，但是，在英語中，照應手段使用的頻率要遠大于漢語，原因是，英語語篇要求盡量避免重復，注重句子之間形式關聯(lián)，而漢語則習慣于實稱，更加注重句子之間的意思關聯(lián)。

例：This plan was brought into being in 1948.Its aim is to prevent anyone from going without medical services, if he needs them, however poor he may be; to ensure that a person who is out of work shall receive a weekly sum of money to subsist on.

分析：原句中為了避免重復使用了人稱照應手法，在第二句中使用its來照應前面的this plan。在譯成漢語時卻可以重復“計劃”一詞。a person與who is out of work也是照應關系，而漢譯時將定語從句譯為偏正結構詞組。

譯文：這一計劃是在1948年出臺的。計劃的目的是使任何需要就醫(yī)的人能享受到醫(yī)療服務，不管他有多貧窮；確保每一個失業(yè)的人每個星期都能領到一份救濟金。

2.3.2 替代和省略的區(qū)別

替代和省略都是為了避免重復，使語言表達簡練、緊湊而采用的兩種語篇銜接手段。與英語相比，替代和省略兩種手段在漢語中的使用頻率要低。主要是因為漢語往往需要重復被替代或省略的部分。

例1：For example, technological advance has also had a strong impact on employment and productivity, benefiting some jobs, hurting others.

分析：others替代了some other jobs, 但在譯成漢語時如果譯為“但對其他的就會造成不利的影響”會產(chǎn)生歧義，這里“其他”可能會指包括工作在內的更廣泛的范圍。所以，譯為“其他的工作”一詞使指代更加明確。

譯文：例如，技術的進步對就業(yè)狀況和生產(chǎn)力的提高就會產(chǎn)生很大的影響，對某些工作的就業(yè)會有利，但對其他的工作就會造成不利的影響。

例2：Under this system, the value of a currency unit was not directly fixed or defined in terms of gold but rather (...) in terms of a currency which was fixed in terms of so much gold.

譯文：在這種貨幣制度下，一貨幣單位值不是以黃金形式直接確定或規(guī)定的，而是以另一種由含金度多少而定的貨幣來確定的。

分析：此句中but rather后面省略了was fixed or defined, 在譯成漢語時添加上省略的謂語，這樣的漢語才通順。

練習

一、請將下面短文中劃線部分譯為中文，注意銜接手段在語篇中的應用和漢譯時的轉換。

Unique Problems in International Trade

There are some unique problems in international trade and companies doing business overseas must be aware of them.In particular, these include (a) cultural problems, (b) monetary conversion, and (c) trade barriers.

Cultural Problems

1.When companies do business overseas, they come in contact with people from different cultures.These individuals often speak a different language and have their own particular custom and manners.These differences can create problems.

For example, in France, business meetings begin promptly at the designated time and everyone is expected to be there.2.Foreign business people who are tardy are often left outside to cool their heels as a means of letting them know the importance of promptness.Unless one is aware of such expected behaviors he may end up insulting the people with whom he hopes to establish trade relations.

Monetary Conversion

A second traditional problem is that of monetary conversion.For example, if a transaction is conducted with the Soviet Union, payment may be made in rubles.Of course, this currency is of little value to the American firm.It is, therefore, necessary to convert the foreign currency to American dollars.3.How much are these Russian rubles worth in terms of dollars? This conversion rate is determined by every market, where the currencies of countries are bought and sold.Thus there is an established rate, although it will often fluctuate from day to day.For example, the ruble may be worth $0.75 on Monday and $ 0.72 on Tuesday because of an announced wheat shortage on Russia.In addition, there is the dilemma associated with converting at $0.72.Some financial institutions may be unwilling to pay this price, feeling that the ruble will sink much lower over the next week.As a result, conversion may finally come at $0.69.These “l(fā)osses” must be accepted by the company as one of the costs of doing business overseas.

Trade Barriers

A third unique problem is trade barriers.4.For one reason or another, all countries impose trade barriers on certain goods crossing their borders.Some trade barriers are directly related to exports.For example, the United States permits strategic military material to be shipped abroad only after government permission has been obtained.5.Most trade barriers, however, are designed to restrict imports.Two of the most common import barriers are quotas and tariffs.

二、閱讀下面短文，請找出照應、省略和替代的銜接手段，并將劃線段落譯成中文。

Problems Facing Potential Exporters

［1］Many firms fail because when they begin exporting they have not researched the target markets or developed an international marketing plan.To be successful, a firm must clearly define goals, objectives and potential problems.Secondly, it must develop a definitive plan to accomplish its objective, regardless of the problems involved.Unless the firm is fortunate enough to possess a staff with considerable expertise, it may not be able to take this crucial first step without qualified outside guidance.

［2］Often top management is not committed enough to overcome the initial difficulties and financial requirements of exporting.It can often take more time and effort to establish a firm in a foreign market than in the domestic one.Although the early delays and costs involved in exporting may seem difficult to justify when compared to established domestic trade, the exporter should take a more objective view of this process and carefully monitor international marketing efforts through these early difficulties.If a good foundation is laid for export business, the benefits derived should eventually outweigh the investment.

［3］Another problem area is in the selection of the foreign distributor.The complications involved in overseas communications and transportation require international distributors to act with greater independence than their domestic counterparts.Also, since a new exporter's trademarks and reputation are usually unknown in the foreign market, foreign customers may buy on the strength of the distributing agent's reputation.A firm should therefore conduct a thorough evaluation of the distributor's facilities, the personnel handling its account, and the management methods employed.

［4］Another common difficulty for the new exporter is the neglect of the exporter market once the domestic one booms: too many companies only concentrate on exporting when there is a recession.Others may refuse to modify products to meet the regulations or cultural preferences of other countries.Local safety regulations cannot be ignored by exporters.If necessary modifications are not made at the factory, the distributor must make them, usually at a greater cost and probably not as satisfactorily.It should also be noted that the resulting smaller profit margin makes the account less attractive.

［5］If exporters expect distributing agents to actively promote their accounts, they must be trained, and their performance continually monitored.This requires a company marketing executive to be located permanently in the distributor's geographical region.It is therefore advisable for new exporters to concentrate their efforts in a few geographical areas until there is sufficient business to support a company representative.The distributor should also be treated on an equal basis with domestic counterparts.For example, special discount offers, sales incentive programmes and special credit terms should be available.

［6］Considering a joint-venture or licensing agreement is another option for new exporters.However, many companies still dismiss international marketing as unviable.There are a number of reasons for this.There may be import restrictions in the target market, the company may lack sufficient financial resources, or its product line may be too limited.Yet, many products that can compete on a national basis can be successful in the majority of world markets.In general, all that is needed for success is flexibility in using the proper combinations of marketing techniques.

三、閱讀下面短文，請將被打亂語序的段落重新排序，并將該段譯成漢語。

How US Businessmen Make Foreign Investment Decisions

［1］The National Council for US-China Trade has its members and associates companies raging from the very largest, such as General Motors, down to the very small company, companies with as few as 10 employees.

［2］① These small, even tiny companies, are frequently formed when professors and research scientists, engineers and technicians, who have been studying and doing research in certain fields, leave large institutions and form small entrepreneurial type companies to exploit and produce their new findings.

② Other examples would include professors leaving the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of California at Berkeley and Stanford University to form new small companies in the computer science and electronic areas.

③ In the United States, much new technology and many new products, components and services now reside in, and are owned by, small companies.

④ Examples would include professors leaving the Universities of Wisconsin, Iowa State and Purdue and forming companies in the new bio-genetics areas, performing gene splitting, and producing new products in animal and plant life, and pharmaceuticals as well.

⑤ Former scientists at the University of Utah now own and operate several companies producing artificial human organs such as mechanical heart and the artificial ear.

［3］Employees of large companies.(Such as IBM, General Electric and Hewlett-Packard), also frequently break away and form their own small companies to develop, produce and market new advanced products, services and technologies, such as the gallium arsenide high-speed semi-conductor as a replacement for silicon.

［4］CITIC may want to deal with some of these very small, advanced technology firms.These emerging small companies would like to do business with countries such as China; however, they have concerns about such a relationship.My presentation reflects the thinking of these new small high technology companies.

［5］Small high technology companies have several good business reasons why foreign opportunities might be considered in spite of the difficulties inherent in capitalizing on them.

［6］The first is to gain a supply of needed resources.

［7］The second is to lower production cost—either to be more competitive in one's home market or to serve a new area.

［8］The third is to penetrate the market where the investment is to be made.

［9］These reasons, of course, could apply to anything from establishing a new office in the next town to building a whole new manufacturing plant half way around the world; but when a foreign location is involved, some of the questions that must be asked to evaluate the options properly, become much more difficult to answer.

四、請將下文中劃線部分譯成英文，注意漢英語篇中銜接手段使用的差異。

更自由化的貿(mào)易，更低的生活支出

［1］我們大家都是消費者，而消費品的價格，比如食品和衣服，必需品和奢侈品，或是介于兩者間的其他消費品都受到貿(mào)易政策的影響。根據(jù)一項計算，在富裕的國家，各國消費者和政府為保護農(nóng)業(yè)所支付的費用高達3 500億美元，而這筆巨額費用足以讓它們的4 100萬頭奶牛坐頭等機艙環(huán)游地球一圈半。保護主義的代價是昂貴的，它令物價高漲。WTO全球體系通過談判來降低貿(mào)易壁壘并運用非歧視原則。隨著生產(chǎn)成本的降低，（因為有些進口原料便宜多了），成品和服務的價格降低，費用也隨之減少?，F(xiàn)在有大量的研究表明保護主義和自由貿(mào)易帶來的效果會有天壤之別。

［2］食品更便宜

對農(nóng)業(yè)實行保護措施時，食品的成本就要增加——據(jù)估計，在歐盟國家里，一個四口之家要在食品消費上平均每年多支出1 500美元；在日本，這相當于在食品上多征了51%的稅；在美國，相當于為保護本國的制糖業(yè)，每年消費者的日用品賬單上多出的30億美元的費用。農(nóng)業(yè)貿(mào)易改革的談判是一件繁瑣的事情，各國政府仍在為農(nóng)業(yè)政策在食品安全和環(huán)保中所起的作用而爭論不休。WTO的成員們正在努力削減補貼和降低貿(mào)易壁壘，兩項號稱是改革中最頑固的狙擊手。2000年，開始了有關農(nóng)業(yè)貿(mào)易的新一輪談判。

［3］服裝更便宜

20世紀80年代后期，由于限制進口和高進口關稅的綜合影響，美國的紡織品和服裝的價格上漲了58%。同樣是因為這些限制，英國的消費者在服裝上，每年估計要多支出5億英鎊，加拿大則是7.8億加元左右。假設澳大利亞政府沒有在20世紀80年代末和90年代初削減進口關稅，那么每個家庭要多支出300澳元。紡織品和服裝品貿(mào)易正在WTO的框架下進行重大的改革，這場改革將在2005年完成。改革程序中包括廢除對進口產(chǎn)品數(shù)量上的限制。經(jīng)濟學家估算，如果關稅也被取消，那么全球將獲利230億美元，其中，美國123億美元，加拿大8億美元，歐盟22億美元，發(fā)展中國家大約80億美元。

［4］其他商品

20世紀80年代早期，由于美國限制對日本年的進口，汽車的價格在1981年到1984年間上漲了41%，幾乎是其他消費品平均上漲幅度的2倍。該舉措原打算保護國內就業(yè)率，結果由于汽車價格過高使得汽車銷售量銳減100萬輛，最后導致了更多的失業(yè)。法國類似的進口限制使本國的車價上漲了33%。電視、收音機、錄像機等產(chǎn)品在保護政策下無論是過去還是現(xiàn)在都會更加昂貴。

［5］還有服務業(yè)

電話服務業(yè)的開放，使得花費更便宜了，把通貨膨脹的影響考慮進去，在20世紀90年代的發(fā)展中國家，通話費以年平均4%的速度下降，而在工業(yè)化國家下降速度也達到了2%。在中國，第二大移動電話公司（中國聯(lián)通）參與競爭，電話費平均下降了30%；在加納，降幅達50%。有時候，服務業(yè)收費的下降，與商品貿(mào)易壁壘的降低有關。當歐盟消除內部貿(mào)易壁壘，建立統(tǒng)一市場后，電信設備的成本在過去10年里，以年均7%的速度下降，至今這種趨勢還在繼續(xù)。WTO的這一體制存在了50年，其間，有八次重大的貿(mào)易談判回合。目前的貿(mào)易壁壘是現(xiàn)代貿(mào)易史上的最低點，它們還在繼續(xù)下降，我們也將不斷受益。